Syntax Definition and Examples

In linguistics, syntax refers to the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. The term syntax comes from the Greek, meaning arrange together. The term is also used to mean the study of the syntactic properties of a language. In computer contexts, the term refers to the proper ordering of symbols and codes so that the computer can understand what instructions are telling it to do. Syntax Syntax is the proper order of words in a phrase or sentence.Syntax is a tool used in writing proper grammatical sentences.Native speakers of a language learn correct syntax without realizing it.The complexity of a writers or speakers sentences creates a formal or informal level of diction that is presented to its audience.   Hearing and Speaking Syntax Syntax is one of the major components of grammar. Its the concept that enables people to know how to start a question with a question word (What is that?), or that adjectives generally come before the  nouns they describe (green chair), subjects often come before verbs in non-question sentences (She jogged), prepositional phrases start with prepositions (to the store), helping verbs come before main verbs (can go or will do), and so on. For native speakers, using correct syntax is something that comes naturally, as word order is learned as soon as an infant starts absorbing the language. Native speakers can tell something isnt said quite right because it sounds weird, even if they cant  detail the exact grammar rule that makes something sound off to the ear.   It is  syntax  that gives the words the power to relate to each other in a sequence...to carry meaning—of whatever kind—as well as glow individually in just the right place(Burgess 1968) Syntactic Rules   English parts of speech often follow ordering patterns in sentences and clauses, such as compound sentences are joined by conjunctions (and, but, or) or that multiple adjectives modifying the same noun follow a particular order according to their class (such as number-size-color, as in six small green chairs). The rules of how to order words help the language parts make sense. Sentences often start with a subject, followed by a  predicate (or just a verb in the simplest sentences) and contain an object or a  complement  (or both), which shows, for example, whats being acted upon. Take the sentence Beth slowly ran the race in wild, multicolored flip-flops.  The sentence follows a subject-verb-object pattern (Beth ran the race). Adverbs and adjectives take their places in front of what theyre modifying (slowly ran; wild, multicolored flip-flops). The object (the race) follows the verb ran, and the prepositional phrase (in wild, multicolored flip-flops) starts with the preposition in. Syntax vs. Diction and Formal vs. Informal   Diction refers to the style of writing or speaking that someone uses, brought about by their choice of words, whereas syntax is the order in which theyre arranged in the spoken or written sentence. Something written using a very high level of diction, like a paper published in an academic journal or a lecture given in a college classroom, is written very formally. Speaking to friends or texting are informal, meaning they have a low level of diction. It is essential to understand that the differences exist not because spoken language is a degradation of written language but because any written language, whether English or Chinese, results from centuries of development and elaboration by a small number of users.Jim Miller(Miller, 2008) Formal written works or presentations would likely also have more complex sentences or industry-specific jargon. They are directed to a more  narrow audience than something meant to be read or heard by the general public, where the audience members backgrounds will be more diverse. Precision in word choice is less exacting in informal contexts than  formal  ones, and grammar rules are more flexible in spoken language than in formal written language. Understandable English syntax is more flexible than most.   ...the odd thing about English is that no matter how much you screw sequences word up, you understood, still, like Yoda, will be. Other languages dont work that way. French?  Dieu!  Misplace a single le or la and an idea vaporizes into a sonic puff. English is flexible: you can jam it into a Cuisinart for an hour, remove it, and meaning will still emerge.†(Copeland, 2009) Types of Sentence Structures Types of sentences and their syntax modes include simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences. Compound sentences are two simple sentences joined by a conjunction. Complex sentences have dependent clauses, and compound-complex sentences have both types included. Simple sentence: Subject-verb structure (The girl ran.)Compound sentence: Subject-verb-object-conjunction-subject-verb structure (The girl ran the marathon, and her cousin did, too.)Complex sentence: Dependent clause-subject-verb-object structure (Although they were tired after the marathon, the cousins decided to go to a celebration at the park.)Compound-complex sentence: Four clauses, dependent and independent structures (Although they werent fond of crowds, this was different, they decided, because of the common goal that had brought everyone together.) Syntax Variations and Distinctions Syntax has changed some over  the development of English through the centuries. The proverb  Whoever loved that loved not at first sight?  indicates that English negatives could once be placed after main verbs (Aitchison, 2001). And not all people speak English in exactly the same way.  Social dialects  learned by people with common backgrounds—such as a social class, profession, age group, or ethnic group—also may influence the speakers syntax. Think of the differences between teenagers slang and more fluid word order and grammar vs. research scientists technical vocabulary and manner of speaking to each other.  Social dialects are also called  social varieties.   Beyond Syntax Following proper syntax doesnt guarantee that a sentence will have meaning, though. Linguist Noam Chomsky created the sentence Colorless green ideas sleep furiously, which is syntactically and grammatically correct because it has the words in the correct order and verbs that agree with subjects, but its still nonsense. With it, Chomsky showed that rules governing syntax are distinct from meanings that words convey. The  distinction between grammar and syntax has been somewhat disrupted by recent research in  lexicogrammar, which takes the words into account in grammar rules:  For example, some verbs (transitive ones, that perform an action on something) always take direct objects. A transitive (action) verb example: She removed the index card from the old recipe box. The verb is removed and the object is index card. Another example includes a transitive phrasal verb: Please look over my report before I turn it in. Look over is the phrasal verb and report is the direct object. To be a complete thought, you need to include whats being looked over. Thus, it has to have a direct object. Resources and Further Reading Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay? Cambridge University, 2001.Burgess, Alan. Enderby Outside. Heinemann, 1968.Chomsky, Noam. The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory. University of Chicago, 1985.Copeland, Douglas. Generation A: A Novel. Scribner, 2009.Miller, Jim. An Introduction to English Syntax. Edinburgh University, 2008.

Mass School Shootings in America Essay - 1334 Words

American schools became dangerous places at the end of the twentieth century. Children as young as twelve and thirteen came to school not to study but to shoot as many people as possible. Even as these students transformed schools into war zones, teachers and other students did what they could to restore order and to save lives. In doing so, they became unlikely heroes on America’s latest battlefield. Although violence in schools is nothing new, multiple shootings are. According to the 1999 Annual Report on School Violence, the number of such shootings increased from one in 1994-95 to five in 1997-98. Tragically, the epidemic of violence continued, and in December 1999, one television newscast called a shooting in Oklahoma the ninth†¦show more content†¦One such case occurred in Moses Lake, Washington, in February 1996 when Barry Loukaitis killed a â€Å"popular boy who had teased him† (Egan). But he also killed another student and a teacher. Asked why he shot the other two, Loukaikis was not able to give any reason. He said mysteriously, â€Å"I don’t know. I guess reflex took over† (Egan). If revenge is sometimes a motive, it is clearly not the only one. Failed romantic relationships also seem to motivate some shootings, although most romances seem too casual to explain this level of violence. According to some experts, teenagers—especially those who come from â€Å"fractured† families—â€Å"depend more on each other than [on] their parents† (Lore A1). As a result, they may feel the sting of rejection more deeply than they would otherwise. This emotional pain may lead to violence. One such case may have occurred in Jonesboro, Arkansas. Mitchell Johnson listed the names of a teacher and four girls whom he planned to kill, including his ex-girlfriend (Bragg, â€Å"Jonesboro Dazed†). A student in Pearl, Mississippi killed his mother with a butcher knife and shot nine students. Two died, and one of them was a former girlfriend (Helmore). Sometimes, immaturity or mental illness played an undeniable role. Such was certainly the case at an alternative school in DeKalb County, Georgia, where a student gunned down Horace Pierpont (â€Å"Bucky†) Morgan. Morgan—who taught reading, poetry, and creativeShow MoreRelatedMass School Shootings in America Essay896 Words   |  4 Pagesmany school shootings occurring nationwide. It is not unusual to hear about these shootings on television or on the radio. This issue has greatly impacted the lives of young people. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;If you turn on you television and look at the destruction caused from a flood or an earthquake, you may think, quot;oh, another one.quot; Although it may shock you to see the pain and suffering of the victims, it is going to happen. Is that the way we have to look at school shootings? 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Four Lenape American Indians entered a schoolhouse near present-day Greencastle, Pennsylvania. The schoolmaster, Enoch Brown, was shot and killed along with several other children in which only two survived. There have been hundreds of shootings since, and more specifically there have been at least 156 school shootingsRead MoreThe Effects Of Gun Violence On The Society916 Words   |  4 Pagesmany cases of public mass shootings th at have occurred, with some of them happening in schools. 2015 will now be known as the year of mass shootings in the United States, and this is also the reason why the discussion for new gun control laws has heighten in the media. Sadly, we have all heard about the high number of mass shootings that suddenly occurred during the last five years, but perhaps what really shook the nation were the shootings which involved children. One shooting which took place inRead MoreCritical Analysis Of The Sandy Hook School Shooting1520 Words   |  7 PagesOn the morning of December 14, 2012, a lone shooter entered Sandy Hook elementary school and killed 26 people. This heinous crime is America’s deadliest mass shooting at a grade school and the fourth-deadliest mass shooting by a single person. Throughout the country, American citizens were mournful and regretful as media outlets released the details of what transpired. Police investigators, media reporters, and American citizens were left wondering how could this have happened and how could we have

Lady Macbeths Ambition Leads to Her Destruction in Shakespeares Macbeth Essay Example For Students

Lady Macbeths Ambition Leads to Her Destruction in Shakespeares Macbeth Essay Power corrupts. Absolute power corrupts absolutely. Lady Macbeth is one of the perfect examples of the total corruption power and ambition can cause. She starts out confident, sure of her ambition and how to gain it. She believed that by becoming a man, becoming what she thought was a creature who would stop at nothing to attain power and its privileges, she could gain what she needed without being impeded by emotions such as remorse, or pity. She calls upon the witches to give her these things and so creates an interesting relationship with them despite never actually meeting them. Finally, however, Lady Macbeth appears not to be able to hold her cool and collected self together. She begins sleep-walking and it is here that we see her fear truly appear. She becomes corrupted not only in body and soul, but fully in the mind as well. Lady Macbeth from the very beginning talks about how she wishes to be a man: And fill me from the crown to the toe top full Of direst cruelty. Make thick my blood. Stop up th access and passage to remorse . . . (1.5.49-51) She seems to believe that manhood is the ability to perform acts of â€Å"direst cruelty† without remorse. Throughout the play we see that she worries her husband will not be man enough to do what she and him deem necessary to attain the throne. â€Å"Yet do I fear thy nature; / It is too full o th milk of human kindness . . .† She says. Constantly we see her telling her husband to â€Å"man up† to stop feeling remorse or guilt or fear and to start behaving like she believes a man should; like a being with no guilt or remorse. However, it is this wish for her to lose all â€Å"passage to remorse† that eventuates in her death her corruption from the madness that comes upon her i. .etimes the knowledge can drive you insane, as we see in the case of Lord and Lady Macbeth. Lady Macbeth turns into a woman filled with evil and no escape. She eventually dies from the pain of it. Lady Macbeth and her husbands downward spiral towards dark destruction is one the most famous of all time. We watch with pleasure as their horrible actions lead to their ultimate destruction. Lady Macbeth makes the choice to, as one source put it, lose her womanly virtues and become what she thinks is a man. It is this choice that leads to her unknowingly helping the witches in their desire to destroy Macbeth and ultimately her as well. She changes from a woman sure of these decisions to woman riddled with fear, corrupted in all possible manner – mind body and soul. Her ambition and power lead to her destruction. Power corrupts, absolute power corrupts absolutely.